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 Inclusive Educational Settings By Liana Chandler (Bach EC, M.T & M Ed Spec)

28/5/2014

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The attainment of inclusion in any setting is largely reliant on how the stakeholders manage the changes required.  Looking at Ambrose’s (1987) managing complex change model, this essay will analyse what considerations would need to be made to include a child with disability, and how the relevant stakeholders could each contribute towards an outcome of motivated change in a year two classroom, in a public primary school setting.

 

According to Ambrose’s (1987) Managing Complex Change, as cited by Highsmith (2013) five essential requirements need to be met in order for motivated change to take place, successfully.  Initiating, supporting and carrying out a desired change requires leaders who are able to judge the complexity that the proposed changes may actually possess as the change relates to the status quo (Ambrose, 1987). 

 

Inclusive education should therefore be seen as an approach to improve schools’ environments, that inclusive education makes quality education available to everyone and is not just a numbers game, putting children with disabilities in classrooms and not meeting their needs (Skritic, Sailor & Gee, 1996).  This is supported by Department of Education, (2012); Dyson, Howes & Roberts, (2003); Skrtic et al. (1996) Christensen, (1996) and Shaffner & Buswell, (1996), who provide that having children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms goes way beyond just the physical placement.  That inclusive education needs to have nothing less than the changing of regular education by encouraging positive beliefs, systems and practices in the schools and classrooms (Department of Education, 2012; Dyson, Howes & Roberts, 2003; Skritic et al., 1996; Christensen, 1996 & Shaffner & Buswell, 1996).  Howes & Roberts, (2003) and Shaffner & Buswell, (1996), provide that when instigating inclusive education, there are three levels that need attention, they are: the local community, the education system, the schools and the classrooms.

 

At the local community and education system level, three areas of influence were identified as being pivotal to embracing diversity they were: (a) the policy perspective of the community, (b) collaboration amongst non-government and government agencies, and (c) the partnerships amongst all stakeholders - educators, parents, peers, all school staff, and community agencies (Dyson, et al. 2003; Department of Education, 2012 & King-Sears, 1997).

 

Oliver (1996) provides that changes must be made at every level of society.  The changes needed are; positively valuing inclusion, support and promotion for all children to be part of one education system coming from the education system, having welcoming environments in schools, educators being dedicated to the positive education of all children and the curriculum modified to include differentiation (Oliver, 1996).

 

At schools, the most significant question is, what proof is available to show that schools can perform in ways that empower all student body participate? (Oliver, 1996).  Dyson, et al. (2003) only found six studies that related to this question and gave reliable and trustworthy evidence.  From these studies they found that, the degree to which schools enable or in some instances prevent inclusion, had two important, prominent themes a) the morals and beliefs held by the schools b) policymaking and leadership.  The latter was also highlighted by Stanovich & Jordan (1998), Schaffner & Buswell (1996) and Ainscow (1995).  Stanovich & Jordan (1998) looked at the education system in Canada, they discovered that the strongest forecaster of successful inclusive was the adoption by principals’ that inclusive education was the norm, that their attitudes towards heterogeneous classrooms allowed for success across the whole school setting.  Aniscow, (1995); Shaffner & Buswell, (1996) & Skritic et al., (1996) all looked at the development of strong school support networks as a high priority for successful inclusion in education, as well as building positive collaborative relationships between professionals, paraprofessionals and parents.  Dettmer, Thurston & Dyck, (2003) provide an overview of the characteristics of an inclusive school, they provide that six aspects are essential if inclusion is to succeed, they are:

  • Positive Leadership,
  • Collaboration,
  • Changed assessment,
  • Supports and
  • Building Collaborative Relationships with Families.  
In classrooms, the success or failure of inclusion depends highly on what happens in this environment.  Inclusive education is not about separate programmes for different students, rather, it entails using differentiation and multisensory teaching approaches for all students (McDonnell, 1998; UNESCO, 1994).  To make these changes educators should start by prioritizing objectives and establishing the most important ones to address first (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).  Adapt environments, programming, planning and strategies to meet the needs of individual learners (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010).  Use effective teaching approaches, that are designed to accomodate the needs of all learners that are clear, appropriately paced, delivered with enthusiasm and flexible to maximise engagement (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010). 

 

Inclusive education also necessitates building collaboration between all stakeholders such as regular class teachers, specialist teachers, teaching assistants, therapists, and parents.  Williams, Williams & Ullman (2002) and Davis & Hopwood (2002) provide that the main components of successful consultation models include (a) the general educator having the main accountability for students’ overall programmes, (b) equal status of professionalism of general educators and special educators, (c) collaboration with families in planning and programming, (d) teachers’ aides working with teachers to provide additional support and (e) additional support being given in the classroom, where appropriate, rather than through withdrawal .

Waldron & McLesky (1998); Salend & Duhaney (1999) and Hobbs & Westling (1998) all support the need for effective inclusion and state that schools who successfully apply inclusion highlight the importance of learning for all students.  This involves teachers and all other stakeholder working in collaboration to foster an environment where all students can succeed.  They go on to state that the best measure for judging successful inclusion the progress students with disabilities make.  Salend & Duhaney (1999) highlight that students without disabilities did not indicate that their learning was hindered in any way and that the educators saw many social benefits for all students.  Hobbs & Westling (1998) also support this finding, they found that children with disabilities coped better than students in special classes, and the inclusion did not have any disadvantageous effect on other students.  

 

Every school who adopts inclusive education looks different, but the characteristics of belonging to their community, high expectations, teamwork and collaboration, flexible roles, varied support services, collaborative relationships with parents, learning environments that are flexible, research based strategies, accountability for learning, and continued professional development are all the common threads that bind these schools.   What has been shown is that the attainment of inclusion in any setting is largely reliant on how all the stakeholders manage the changes required, how they each contribute towards an outcome of motivated change.

 

Bibliography

Ainscow, M.  (1995).  Education for all: making it all happen.  Support for Learning 10 (4) 147-155.

Ambrose, D. (1987).  In Highsmith, J. (2013).  Adaptive Software Development: A Collaborative Approach to Managing Complex Systems ebook -  http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CVcUAAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=ambrose+1987+managing+complex+change

&ots=5qFEaAMCxG&sig=mJBkTwkS6wELpA_-1UFaWTEEoto#v=onepage&q&f=false – Accessed 3/3/2014.

Christensen, C. (1996). Disabled, handicapped or disordered: What’s in a name?  In C. Christensen and F. Rizvi (eds.), Disability and the dilemmas of education and justice (pp.63-78). Buckingham: Open University Press.

Davis, P. & Hopwood, V. (2002). Including children with a visual impairment in the mainstream primary school classroom. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 2(3), 139-147.

Dettmer, P., Thurston, L., & Dyck, N. (2005).  Foundations and Frameworks for Collaborative School Consultation (pp. 30-45).  Consultation, Collaboration and Teamwork for Students with Special Needs.  New York: Pearson.

Department for Education and Skills (2007). Every parent matters. Nottingham: Author.

Dyson, D.A., Howes, A. & Roberts, B. (2003). What do we really know about inclusive schools? A systematic review of the research evidence. Paper presented at the AERA Meeting, Chicago.

Evans, P. (2004). Educating students with special needs: a comparison of inclusion practices in OECD countries.  Education Canada, 44(1).

Hobbs, T., & Westling, D.L. (1998). Inclusion promoting successful inclusion. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31, 12-19.

King-Sears, M. E., & Mooney, J. F. (2004). Teaching content in an academically diverse classroom. In B. K. Lenz, D. D. Deshler, & B. R. Kissam (Eds.), Teaching content to all: Evidence-based inclusive practices in middle and secondary schools (pp. 221-257). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Lipsky, D.K. & Gartner, A. (1999).  Inclusive education: a requirement of a democratic society. In H. Daniels & P. Garner (eds.) World yearbook of education 1999: Inclusive education (pp.12-23). London: Kogan Page.

Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E.  (2010).  Career and technical education and transitions.  In The inclusive classroom:  Strategies for effective instruction (4th ed., pp. 391-414).  Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

McDonnell, J. (1998). Instruction for students with severe disabilities in general education settings. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 33(3), 199-215.

Oliver, M. 1996). Education for all? A perspective on an inclusive society.  In M. Oliver, Understanding Disability: From theory to practice (pp.78-94). Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Salend, S. J., & Duhaney, L. M. (1999).  The Impact of Inclusion on Students With and Without Disabilities and Their Educators.  Remedial and Special Education, 20, 114-126.

Shaffner, C.B. & Buswell, B.E. (1996).  Ten critical elements for creating inclusive and effective school communities.  In S. Stainback and W. Stainback (eds), Inclusion: A guide for educators (pp.49-65). Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks.

Skrtic, T.M., Sailor, W. & Gee, K. (1996). Voice, collaboration, and inclusion: democratic themes in educational and social reform initiatives. Remedial and Special Education, 17(3), 142-157.

Stanovich, P.J. & Jordan, A. (1998). Canadian teachers’ and principals’ beliefs about inclusive education as predictors of effective teaching in heterogeneous classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 98(3), 221-238.

UNESCO (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. Paris: Author.

Waldron, N., & McLeskey, J. (1998). The impact of a full-time Inclusive School Program (ISP) on the academic achievement of students with mild and severe learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64, 395–405.

Williams, B., Williams, J., & Ullman, A. (2002).  Parental Involvement in Education.  London: Department of Education and Skills.

 



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Discourses

25/5/2014

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 Discourses represent subjectivity, knowledge and power; they are a set of ideas, images, stories or statements that produce a particular version of events, provide a particular view of organisations or groups and make it a truth (Burr, 1995).  Discourses change over time and throughout different cultures (Hall, 2001).  There are social identities which also run through discourses such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, lifestyle, class, disability, and religion (Robinson & Jones Diaz, 2006).  Some dominant discourses such as family structure, motherhood, race, heterosexuality, masculinity, femininity and monolingualism are socially constructed which are heavily influenced by the media (Robinson & Jones Diaz, 2006).  The discourse of family structure, that is represented by media, is the nuclear family that is a mum, dad and children it is considered to be the normal family, it tends to encompass western, heterosexual, white, middle-class, Christian values and morals (Robinson & Jones Diaz, 2006).  These views, discourses and images impact on non-nuclear and other families and the way they are perceived and judged within society.  In this essay I will identify the dominant discourse of family structure operating in the media and deconstruct three media samples (see attached appendix).  I will look at the issues raised by the media samples and link them to research.  I will then look at the impact these constructions have on the early childhood field and the community.

 

The nuclear family that is portrayed in media is represented as the most common family structure that provides safety and stability.  The families are always respectful, healthy, loving, playful and friendly (Robinson & Jones Diaz, 2006).  Image 1 (please refer to appendix) shows a mum, a dad and two children frolicking happily on the beach; they all seem healthy and loving.  The parents are portrayed as having an indulgent, care free attitude spending time playing and communicating with their children, their facial expressions emit happiness, interest and fun.  In image 2 (please refer to appendix) once again family structure is represented by the nuclear family.  In this picture they are all laughing and splashing around the pool their facial expressions are relaxed and happy.  The clever use of mum and dad in the background watching over the children gives the feel of protection and safety.  It also implies a certain amount of socioeconomic status, being able to afford a pool.  Image 3 (please refer to appendix) is powerfully constructed to represent the family structure, the nuclear family, as desired and exclusive this is shown by the parental indulgence of one to one bonding.  The whole family is attending a sporting activity, wearing designer clothes.  Dad is heavily involved in the sons sport giving orders and clutching at the fence while the mum and her daughter spend time talking together, they are smiling and happy.  Due to the clothes, the venue and the type of recreation, this picture creates the nuclear family as the elite of families.   All these images serve the purpose of re-enforcing the dominant discourse of the nuclear family and the cultural binary of rich/poor.  These images pose some very real issues about the impact this has on nuclear families as the most safe and stable environment for children and the stereotyping and biases on non-nuclear and other families. 

 

The impact on nuclear families as the most safest and stable environment for children and the stereotyping and biases on non-nuclear and other families are the two main issues in these images.  The impact on stereotyping of non-nuclear and other families, particularly gay and lesbian families and single parents are that they are frequently viewed as social problems destabilising the foundations of strong and moral family life and social values (Carrington, 2002).  A great example of this is seen in the article Broken Britain it states that "I think it's time we recognised that family breakdown is the central factor in the social breakdown we see in our country today," (www.psfk.com), the article attributes high crime rates, drug abuse, gang warfare and spiralling teenage pregnancies, on the breakdown of marriage as an institution.  Rather than embracing diverse family structures these images lead to strengthen the dominant discourse of the nuclear family as normal, safe, moral and superior (Carrington, 2002).  Unless you come from a standard mum, dad and children family, the inference from media as well as society is that you are irreparably disadvantaged and born to fail (www.sundayherald.com).  Society has the knowledge about the differing family units; however the power of media to impose the discourse of the nuclear family as normal overshadows the logic that all families including the nuclear families are structured differently.  We no longer live in the era of the nuclear family; we do not all have a Ford in the driveway and a mom in an apron with dinner on the stove waiting for her husband to return from his hard day at work (www.drizzle.com).

 

The traditional nuclear family is often mythically linked to false expectations of stability and safety (Carrington, 2002).  Research suggests that children in single parent families do as well as those living in similar two parent families.  It appears that the family structure or living arrangements are not as important to children’s well-being as the access to income (www.thetimes.co.za).   Foster (2007) as cited in www.thetimes.co states “When we match families based on poverty status and other family disadvantages, kids fare the same regardless of their family structure.”  There was as much diversity of children’s social/emotional and intellectual development in low socioeconomic single parent families as across families of different types (www.thetimes.co.za).  Dr Lauren Wild family psychologist agreed that income had a major effect.  Wild found that how well the family interacted and bonded were much more important for the children’s well-being than family structure.  Wild (2007) as cited in www.thetimes.co.za states comments “On average, children with sufficient love and limits do better.”  She highlights the need for children to feel love, affection, acceptance and respect, as well as fair limits and boundaries. Wild’s research included same sex families and her research showed that the children living with same sex parents are doing as well as those with heterosexual parents (www.thetimes.co.za). Our families are diverse and complex. Our interactions in public should reflect this reality (www.drizzle.com).

The impact of these constructions on the early childhood field and the community are considerable.  Children are not born with any prejudice, however impressions and ideas are formed between the ages 2 and 4, they will acquire stereotypes or negative attitudes toward those that they perceive as different (The Peaceful Solution, 2003) therefore diversity and anti-discrimination training are essential when children are young.   Children receive most of their stereotypes and prejudices from their environments, it is crucial for early childhood educators to respond openly and honestly to young children’s questions and misperceptions about color, gender, race, various family structures, disabilities and other forms of difference (http://www.partnersagainsthate.org/families/children.html). It is also important to fill children’s lives with positive experiences with diversity (Villares, 2006).  To ensure dominant discourses are not filtering into early childhood settings, anti-discrimination training provided to educators ensures that they obtain the skills necessary to address scenarios relating to gender issues, diversity of families, physical/mental abilities and economic status (www.adl.org/educattion/miller). Educators are then able to explore their own biases and the ways they may affect the children in their care (www.adl.org/educattion/miller). A great way to reinforce the training and to re-educate the children is to have multicultural and anti-discrimination lessons embedded into the existing curriculum, this makes an anti-discrimination approach part of everyday thinking (www.adl.org/educattion/miller).  Education can then spill into the local community via the children and the centre through what they learn and are exposed to within the setting.  The best way to combat discrimination of any kind is education and policies that promote inclusion.  Such policies as those implemented by the Australian government on inclusion, it reads “Encouraging all Australians to participate in public life and the community.  To be socially included, all Australians must be given the opportunity to: secure a job; access services; connect with family, friends, work, personal interests and local community; deal with personal crisis; and have their voices heard.  Promoting social inclusion requires a new approach to developing and implementing policy and programs. This new approach requires strong partnerships between all levels of government, business and community organisations to address economic and social disadvantage in Australia.” (http://apo.org.au/website/social-inclusion)

The word family is powerful; its ideas, strengths and weaknesses will be different for each person, they will have their own personal discourses of politics, culture, social groups, economics and religious influences.  Media will display families in a way to promote their messages; however such is the dominance of the traditional nuclear family that this is the image always used to represent families.   Being able to critically analyse and deconstruct images of families can be useful in seeing the discourses and constructions that are formed or made truthful through media.  Even though society appears to accept the dominant discourse formed through media we should be aware that it will conflict with many differing families and needs to be challenged. Challenging social frameworks and norms will hopefully abolish stereotypes and biases.

Reference List

 

Babycakes: Deconstructing the Nuclear Family Paradigm  

www.drizzle.com/~mdavis/2008/03/deconstructing-nuclear-family-paradigm.html - Accessed 1/9/2013.

Burr, V. (1995).  An Introduction to Social Contructionism.  Routledge: London.

Carrington, V. (2002).  New Times: New Families.  Kluwer Academic: Dordrecht.

Hall, S. (2001).  Foucault: power, knowledge and discourse, In Wetherell, M., Taylor, S. & Yates, S. J. (eds).  Discourse theory and practice.  Sage: London.

How to Talk to Your Children about Bias and Prejudice http://www.partnersagainsthate.org/families/children.html - Accessed 1/9/2013. 

Nuclear Family Has Exploded (from Sunday Herald)  

www.sundayherald.com/oped/opinion/display.var.2466637.0.nuclear_family_has_exploded.php - Accessed 31/8/2013.

Nuclear family isn’t always best for kids  

www.thetimes.co.za/PrintEdition/Insight/Article.aspx?id=614760 – Accessed 31/8/2013.

Robinson, K. H., & Jones Diaz, C. (2006).  Diversity and Difference in Early Childhood Education.  Open university press: London.

Social Inclusion | Australian Policy Online  

apo.org.au/website/social-inclusion – Accessed 2/9/2013.

 Terminology: “Broken Britain” (from Sunday Herald)  

www.psfk.com/2008/07/terminology-broken-britain.html - Accessed 30/8/2013.

The Miller Early Childhood Initiative of A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE ...  

www.adl.org/education/miller/q_a/answer2.asp?sectionvar... – Accessed 30/8/2013.

The Peaceful Solution Character Education Program... www.peacefulsolution.org/curriculum/.../sample_lessons.html - accessed 31/8/2013.

Villares, E. (2006).  From family deficit to family strength: viewing family contributions to children’s learning from a family resilience perspective.  Professional School Counseling.  Gale Group: New York.


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Reluctant Readers

20/5/2014

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Signs of a Reluctant Reader  By Liana Chandler (Bach EC, M.T & M Ed Spec)

Signs of a reluctant reader; when it is reading time a child will:

 
  • be instantly distracted 
  •  try to change the task into something else
  •  ask questions and try to talk rather than read
  •  refuse to read
  •  change their normal behaviour
  •  misbehave (throw a tantrum, talk back, etc)
  •  become sensitive and teary
  •  show little interest and effort
  •  become the ‘class clown” or “entertainer”
 

So what commonly causes reluctancy in reading?

  • Missing basic knowledge of reading rules
  • Fear of being criticised by parents, teachers and peers
  • Lack of confidence and anxiety at failing at reading, e.g., “giving up”
  • A possible learning difficulty (a learning difficulty is NOT the same as a learning disability!)
  • Lack of interest in content, boredom
  • Overwhelmed or overworked at home or school e.g., “Too many other things to do”
  • Reading content is not ability appropriate e.g., “too hard” or “too easy”
  • A possible learning disability e.g., Autism, Asperger’s, etc.
  It is important to note that it can be more than just one reason!

  How do you know what the problems are or problem is?

   
  1. Indicators that the fear of being criticised by parents, teachers and peers may be the cause;

     

  • Is a perfectionist (must get it right the first time)
  • Would rather not try than make a mistake
  • Easily frustrated when wrong
  • Avoids reading for some people but not others
  • Wants to practice or read alone
  • Compares themselves to other people
  • Avoids reading or presenting work in class
  • Acts shy to avoid reading to others
  • Reads very, very, very softly (like a mouse)
  • Looks for others reactions to their reading
  • Beams when they get it right and others acknowledge

 

  1. Indicators that your child may be anxious or lacking confidence;

     

  • Displays signs of hopelessness
  • Is shy and unwilling to try new methods
  • Avoids reading and presenting work to anyone
  • Displays bad behaviour to mask true feelings
  • Compares themselves to other people
  • Shuts down when it is time to read
  • Puts themselves down regularly
  • Is teary and distraught over small things
     

  1. Indicators that it may be a learning difficulty;

     

  • Often restless and easily distracted
  • Confuses basic words
  • Slow in memory recall
  • Confuses letter shapes, numbers, etc. (back-to-front)
  • Difficulty following instructions and routines
  • Slow to learn new concepts and skills
  • Struggles sequencing ideas
  • Difficulty connecting letters sounds to letters shapes
  • Finds it difficult to learn in a group setting
     

  1. Indicators that your child may have a lack of interest in content, boredom;

     

  • Complains about reading material
  • Genuinely shows no interest in subject of text
  • Shows interest in other books than currently reading

  • Every page is like pulling teeth
  • Can’t recall main events (eyes glazed over)

     

  1. Indicators that your child may be overwhelmed or overworked;

     

  • Looks genuinely tired and exhausted
  • Irritable and cranky at the thought of doing another thing
  • Yawns whilst they are reading
  • Has tantrums and mood swings
  • Tells you about all the things ‘they have to do”
  • Becomes disorganised and chaotic
  • Has an activity every day after school (over committed)
  • Is given huge amounts of homework/assignments

     

  1. Indicators that the reading text may not be ability appropriate; 

  • Your child wants to read but finds it too hard or too  easy

  • Your child spends all their time decoding words and reading is slow and broken

  • The meaning is lost because it’s too hard to read or, the text is so easy the child reads it quickly without paying attention

  • The text is so easy, they are bored of it
  • The book content is not age appropriate

     

  1. Indicators it may be a possible learning disability;

     

  • Delayed speech and vocabulary growth
  •  Extreme distraction, restlessness, impulsiveness
  •  Poor coordination, unaware of surroundings
  •  Fine motor skills slow to develop
  •  Trouble reading body language and facial expressions
  •  Trouble grasping basic concepts, letter formation, letter sound, questioning and answering, etc.

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“Making the MOST of Creativity in Activities for Young Children with Disabilities”

15/5/2014

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This article was written by Linda Crane Mitchell and it talks about how to have an inclusive environment.  

One of the first key issues is her discussion about the inclusion of children with disabilities and specific learning needs in regular classroom activities.  Her suggestion is that teachers need to provide appropriate curriculum to meet the varying ability of all children.  This is supported by Arthur (2007) she states that “an inclusive approach to curriculum acknowledges and embraces diversity and difference.  This approach recognises that everyone needs to ‘understand diversity is integral to life within the global community’ and that everyone needs to ‘learn to live and work with difference’” (Hamston & Murdoch, 2004).  

The NSW Department of Education and training (2003a; 2003b) support this argument and they state that “Strong evidence of inclusivity occurs when all children from diverse sociocultural contexts contribute to learning experiences and educators take seriously their contributions.  

Her second key issue is about how research shows that children with disabilities develop skills more easily if they are included in activities alongside normal developing children and this can be achieved through the modification of the environment.  

An inclusive approach argues that children with additional needs should be included in mainstream educational settings rather than segregated into special settings.  It encourages the acceptance and valuing of diversity within educational settings, so that children’s strengths and existing expertise are valued and built on (Arthur, 2007).  

The third key issue is her strategies for promoting creativity and she suggest using the M.O.S.T model, which are modifications, objectives, space and time.   

While the issues she raises and strategies she provides are appropriate they are not in-depth nor do they provide for the varying abilities and needs of all of the children.  Her examples using this model are tokenistic and inappropriate.


To provide for all children creative art activities should be offered within a flexible daily routine and use open-ended resources.  Time and space should be organised so that children can return to the activities to extend their own creativity and learning (Arthur, 2007).  

Open-ended resources include natural materials such as sand, water and mud as well as artefacts and tools.  These materials may include wooden blocks, pieces of fabric, recycled materials, paints, pencils and blank paper all of which can come in varying sizes and width to allow children to choose which materials work best for them.  Computers and software such as KidPix or Word for painting, drawing and writing can also be made available (Arthur, 2007).  

Teachers should advocate large blocks of time with minimal transitions and a flexible routine or the integration of other units of work into creative art activities, this will allow to all children the freedom to immerse themselves and be creative (Arthur, 2007).  Space for creativity is also very important as specific types of environments promote different behaviours, to help with creativity areas need to be assessed as they can be hard or soft, light or dark, active or quiet, aesthetically pleasing and respectful, so depending on the type of creative arts experience will depend on the space needed (Arthur, 2007).  Space also needs to be considered in terms of how much room children have to move around in.  

Teachers should offer child-initiated and directed experiences and activities, provide a range of experiences and activities diverse competencies, ages and interests, offer children the opportunity to choose resources and make decisions about what is available in the environment and encourage children to use the materials in different ways with no preconceived notions of purpose (Arthur, 2007).   

Inclusive environments will support children with diverse abilities.  Children have a wide range of physical skills, intellectual abilities, experiences and success with interactions and communication, and each child has the right to become an active participant within their settings (Arthur, 2007).

 

 







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The Role of Educators

14/5/2014

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The role of the educator is to support children’s oral language throughout the day by using varied vocabulary, challenging them to think, and stimulating their curiosity and imaginations. 

In early childhood settings this means that teachers have an important role to play during informal times such as meals and free play as well as during more formal, structured times like book reading and group time (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001).  But teachers cannot use the same conversational style throughout the day; they need to make adjustments in how they converse with children. Adjustments are necessary to allow teachers to take advantage of the constraints of different conversational settings. During group times, children benefit when teachers work to keep the group focused, provide children new information, and engage them as a group in thoughtful reflection on books. During these times, teachers also need to take a directive role in determining the content and direction of a conversation while at the same time being responsive to children's questions and comments. In contrast, in less structured times such as free play and mealtimes, teachers need to listen to children and encourage them to extend their ideas (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001). 

In school settings this means that teachers have a significant role in providing a range of contexts for talking and listening so that students expand their experience and knowledge (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2003).  Teachers need to be conscious of the important role children can play in supporting each other's oral language development. Teachers can create classrooms in which children freely and frequently use a relatively broad range of words as they converse with teachers and each other. Allocating sufficient time and providing the space, props, and support that children need will enable them to practice their language skills (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001).  Another important consideration for teaching talking and listening is the layout of the classroom, i.e. the furniture moved to facilitate an interactive environment.  Interactive classrooms are fertile grounds for talking and listening and the growth of ideas (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2003). 

 Teachers and Teaching in Early Childhood Settings

There is strong evidence to support that teacher-child conversations play an important role in shaping children's language and early literacy development. One key aspect of how teachers work with children is the extent to which they make themselves available to children. Children benefit from having conversations with teachers; therefore, teachers need to organise their day to ensure that they have time to engage children as individuals, as well as in small and large groups, in extended conversations that encourage children to explore new ideas as they clarify and express their own thoughts  (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001). 

Evidence shows the need for teachers to make intentional efforts to push children's thinking and support their literacy development as they converse with children throughout the day, plan their day and the content of the curriculum, and organise their environment. For a teacher to provide children optimal supports in all these areas, they must have a deep understanding of what children need, skilful ability to provide appropriate experiences throughout the day, and the willingness to expend the energy needed to support children's development all day long. These are the qualities of intentional teaching (Dickinson & Tabors, 2001). 

 
Some Strategies and resources

Using puppets, games, songs, Rhymes and dramatic play to encourage children to engage in talking and listening.

Provide opportunities for children to discuss, retell and compare books and stories.   

Provide experiences to explore factual and literary texts.

Introduce new words to the children through the use of repetition, signs, flashcard activities and rhyming games.

Provide experiences that are interactive and allows the time for student-student and student-teacher conversations.

Talk, model, demonstrate and guide children through how texts work and how meaning is constructed. 

Have activities and/or games that allow children to explore and later on have discussions where new words and ideas can be shared and learned.

 
 Teachers and Teaching in School Setting

Teachers need to identify the assumptions the curriculum makes.  Not all students will share the assumptions about talking and listening practices that the curriculum demands and the teacher requires.  While small group work is effective as a way to promote collaboration, initially some students may prefer to listen and make fewer contributions.  Many students may not feel confident enough to make a presentation to an audience.  However, students who prefer to work alone need more opportunities to interact in non-threatening environments, as interaction is a necessary skill for learning and sharing ideas.  Teacher need to consider differences among individual students and facilitate an environment where students feel safe and have a sense of belonging (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2003). 

 
For some students, oral language features such as syntax or pronunciation may need to be explicitly taught.  Where possible, teachers should make connections between the written work and its pronunciation through verbal rehearsal and reading aloud, including group reading.  Older students who have encountered specialised works in research may be uncertain and reluctant to say the words, despite knowing meaning and usage (NSW Department of Education and Training, 2003). 


Some Strategies and resources

Explicit teaching - provides links between knowing how language works and using language.  Teaching about the purpose and features of a particular text provides students with the knowledge and understandings necessary to apply the skills when talking and listening. 

Modelled teaching involves modelled talking and listening, presenting students with oral texts and discussing their meaning. It also involves teacher and student interactions throughout the day, demonstrating how to compose and interpret a text and seeing and hearing language in action.  Modelling demonstrates what good listeners and talkers do.

Guided teaching involves drawing on the knowledge, skills and understandings discussed and demonstrated during modelling.  It may involve the whole class, small groups or individual students.  Activities should be created that support learning and facilitate the development of students’ linguistic resources and conceptual knowledge.  Guiding is valuable for all students but is crucial for supporting student with specific needs. 

Independent teaching should include many opportunities to use talking and listening in connection with the other modes of language.  Teachers need to ensure that students have the appropriate subject specified vocabulary required to participate in a task. 

 
Diversity

Educators have a dual role, providing a supportive environment and supporting the learners. It is important that in the early months of the year, educators work persistently to establish the predictable routines and behavioural expectations for the learners (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000).  These include greeting the children on arrival, using routine language to assist children to choose activities, using simple English to help chil­dren understand the routines and expectations of the program knowing some key words in the child’s home language, a buddy-system with another child who can speak the same language, visual aids and teachers aids (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000).  An important strategy to assist in the English as a second lan­guage and with special needs is the use of repetition. Saying the same thing more than once gives a child more than one chance to understand what is being said (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000). 

 

Developing listening skills

Educators as active listeners show respect for children’s efforts at speaking and they model good listening habits. They do this by concentrating on the learner’s efforts at speaking and encouraging other children to listen to them. They can assist learners by making directions and instructions implicit and checking that the learner has understood (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000). 


Children’s listening skills can be fostered using simple songs and rhymes, playing listening games and providing a range of quality games and CDs. Children learning English as a second language and with learning difficulties can be encouraged to listen and practice English in fun ways, such as playing word games and introducing rhymes. This helps them become familiar with the pronunciation, sounds, stress and rhythms (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000).    

Educators can support these children by focusing on topics and activities that children are familiar with and which can provide shared background knowledge for them (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000).  Use of hands on activities, support from visual materials and other activities that focus on personal and concrete experi­ences support learners to develop important concepts and learn key language items in English. Children may choose to respond using non-verbal language or with single words and gestures (Siraj-Blatchford & Clarke 2000).  As well as visual and contextual clues, linguistic cues, such as calls to attract and hold attention and repetition are important as they provide support for learners.  As children develop confidence, it is important to expose them to more decontextual­ised language (Siraj-Blatchford, 2009).  That is, the language not supported by visual materials. This is often the language of stories, or of recalling past events. As young learners gain confidence, they are less re­liant on visual or concrete referents. Children become confident in expressing their interests, opinions and preferences and they learn to negotiate solutions to problems and enter into sustained conversations with others (Siraj-Blatchford, 2009). 

 
Assessing outcomes

Assessment of children’s ongoing language develop­ment is crucial to ensure relevant planning for each child (Carr, 2006). Assessment of learning includes reviewing, gathering and analysing information about what the learner can do, what they understand and the progress they are making at any particular point in their de­velopment (Carr, 2006). Assessment assists educators to find out and support the cul­tural and linguistic experiences of the children (Carr, 2006). Regular observations should provide them with a clear picture of each child’s progress at various stages throughout the year.

A variety of strategies and methods can be used to record children’s progress. These include:


  • asking children to tell you about their drawing, recording this and collecting the art work

  • writing detailed observations

  • keeping an account of what parents say about children’s language development

  • documenting children’s development using learning stories and

  • using video/DVDs to record children’s progress.
Ongoing observation and documentation provides the means to show children’s progress even if the progress is minimal (Carr, 2006).

 

Reference List

Carr, M. (2006).  Assessment in Early Childhood Settings:  Learning Stories.  London:Sage.

Dickinson, D.  K. & Tabors, P O. (2001).  Beginning Literacy with Language: Young Children Learning at Home and at School.  New York:  Brooks Publishing Co.



NSW Department of Education and Training. (2003). State Literacy and Numeracy Plan, Focus on literacy: Talking and listening. Canberra:  NSW Department of Education and Training; Professional Support and Curriculum directorate.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. & Clarke, P. (2000).  Supporting identity, diversity and language in the early years. Bucks: Open University Press.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2009).  Conceptualising progression in the pedagogy of play and sustained shared thinking in early childhood education: a Vygotskian perspective.  Educational and Child Psychology 26 (2).

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Language Disorders and Social Skills

8/5/2014

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4 ways language disorders can affect your child’s social life.  By Liana Chandler (Bach EC, M.T & M Ed Spec)
 

Language disorders can make it hard for children to engage in the normal give-and-take of conversation. Depending on your child’s particular language issue, different social skills may be affected. Here are some common social challenges—and ways to help.

 

Social Challenge #1: Your child monopolises conversations.  The language link: Social communication disorder (SCD) often makes it hard for kids to understand the rules of polite conversation.

Tip: During conversations with your child, remind them to slow down and listen to you.  Maintaining eye contact with your child can also help them develop turn-taking skills.



Social Challenge #2: Your child is quiet around friends. The language link: Expressive language disorder (ELD) is a condition that makes it hard to put thoughts into words. This causes some kids to become shy.

Tip: Use everyday activities to encourage conversation. For example, while grocery shopping, ask your child to discuss what he likes to eat and why.

Social Challenge #3: Your child doesn’t understand jokes or sarcasm. The language link: Children with SCD can be very literal-minded and have trouble interpreting tone of voice.

Tip: Watch TV shows together, and discuss the characters’ moods. Explain how you can sense a character’s emotions. This will help your child to learn to interpret nonverbal cues.

Social Challenge #4: Your child gets tongue-tied. The language link: Kids with ELD and mixed receptive expressive language disorder have trouble finding the right words.

Tip: Help your child expand his vocabulary. When introducing a new word, explain what it means, then use it in a context he’ll remember: “I need a vehicle to take me to the store.”

Having social issues on top of learning difficulties can take a toll on your child’s self-esteem.  But there are many techniques you can use to
help your child develop stronger social skills—there are even ways watching TV can help!


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Australian Literacy Academy is a private English tutoring centre dedicated to helping children of all levels and spectrums reach their full potential in the area of literacy: reading, writing, spelling, comprehension and speaking and listening. We provide tutoring at our Castle Hill centre and online
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